Division of Natural Sciences

World War II vet, CU prof joins event marking end of that war

Rachel Sauer — Fri, 08 Nov 2024 15:17:11 +0000

World War II vet, CU prof joins event marking end of that war Rachel Sauer Fri, 11/08/2024 - 08:17

Clint Talbott

Richard Jessor, ��ƷSM��ӰƬ professor emeritus, to join Miami’s New World Symphony this weekend to be interviewed by historian James Holland

Next spring marks the 80^th anniversary of the end of World War II and the Holocaust, and Miami Beach’s New World Symphony is performing two concerts this weekend that will feature pre-concert interviews with Richard Jessor, a ��ƷSM��ӰƬ professor emeritus of behavioral science who fought with the U.S. Marines on the island of Iwo Jima.

Conductor Lidiya Yankovskaya and best-selling historian James Holland will team up for a commemorative concert honoring veterans and the “global sounds of resilience.”

The symphony characterized the event this way: “From the beaches of Normandy and Iwo Jima to the skies of the Tuskegee Airmen, explore the global fight for democracy through music that commemorates and reflects. Soprano Emily Magee makes her NWS debut in the pensive and poignant Four Last Songs.”

In pre-concert appearances on Saturday, Nov. 9, and Sunday, Nov. 10, Holland will interview Jessor about his experiences in the war.

Jessor, who will turn 100 this month, said the attempt to use music to illuminate “such deeply disturbing human experiences as war and the Holocaust is, to my mind, an admirable enterprise deserving support.”

Additionally, he said, the event should underscore the need for societies to do everything possible to avoid such calamities in the future. “And finally, perhaps, as one of the diminishing cohort of WWII combat veterans still alive, I feel a continuing responsibility to be a voice against the madness of wars.”

Jessor noted that the senior vice president for artistic planning and programs of the New World Symphony is Martin Sher, son of Boyce Sher and Daniel Sher, dean emeritus of ��ƷSM��ӰƬ’s College of Music.

Jessor met Martin Sher in July when he was visiting his parents in Boulder. At that meeting, Sher discussed his plan to devote the 2024-25 programs to commemorating the end of World War II and the Holocaust, and he wanted to present music that would provide an interesting and inspirational commentary.

Examples include Shostakovich’s Leningrad Symphony, written when the city was under siege, and the music for the film Saving Private Ryan, written by John Williams. Sher also wanted to learn more about Jessor’s combat experience as a Marine in the battle for Iwo Jima.

At the time, Sher was consulting with Holland, and Holland interviewed Jessor via Zoom on his blog. Later, Sher conceived the idea of the pre-concert interviews and asked Jessor to have those conversations with Holland in person. “Of course, I agreed,” Jessor said.

This weekend’s Veterans Day concerts are free to veterans. Saturday’s concert is available to stream live and will be available online after the performance. The streaming option is free to anyone with an email address who registers at this link. The full concert program is at this link.

Jessor’s pre-concert interview will not be streamed, however.

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Richard Jessor, ��ƷSM��ӰƬ professor emeritus, to join Miami’s New World Symphony this weekend to be interviewed by historian James Holland.

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Above: Richard Jessor at his home in Boulder. ��ƷSM��ӰƬ photo by Glenn Asakawa.

Andrés Montoya-Castillo earns 2024 Packard Fellowship for Science and Engineering

Anonymous — Tue, 22 Oct 2024 13:43:24 +0000

Andrés Montoya-Castillo earns 2024 Packard Fellowship for Science and Engineering Anonymous (not verified) Tue, 10/22/2024 - 07:43

��ƷSM��ӰƬ chemist will use the five-year support to study tailoring cycles affecting energy flow in solar energy conversion

Andrés Montoya-Castillo, an assistant professor in the ��ƷSM��ӰƬ Department of Chemistry, has been awarded a 2024 Packard Fellowship for Science and Engineering.

The fellowships, given by the David and Lucille Packard Foundation, are awarded to innovative early-career scientists and engineers, who receive $875,000 over five years to pursue their research.

“These scientists and engineers are the architects of tomorrow, leading innovation with bold ideas and unyielding determination,” said Nancy Lindborg, president and chief executive officer of the Packard Foundation, in announcing the 2024 awards. “Their work today will be the foundation for the breakthroughs of the future, inspiring the next wave of discovery and invention.”

Montoya-Castillo is a theoretical chemist who leads a lab that encompasses multidisciplinary skills spanning physical chemistry, condensed matter physics and quantum information science.

Explaining his research that the fellowship will support, Montoya-Castillo notes, “The world’s growing population faces looming food shortages and the pressing need for cheap and sustainable energy sources. Reliable conversion of sunlight–our most abundant energy source–into fuel can address these threats. However, reliable energy conversion requires knowing how to tailor, at an atomic level, photoprotection cycles limiting food production and energy flow in solar cells that convert sunlight into fuel.”

He adds that he “will harness the power of generalized master equations to develop efficient, atomically resolved theories and analysis tools that cut the cost of experiments needed to reveal how to employ chemical modifications to manipulate photoprotection cycles in plants and the photocatalytic activity of metal oxides. Our developments will offer transformative insights into fundamental excitation dynamics in complex materials, enabling the boosting of photosynthetic crop production and optimization of environmentally friendly semiconductors that split water into clean fuels.”

Last year, Montoya-Castillo was named a U.S. Department of Energy Early Career Research Program scientist and earlier this year received the ��ƷSM��ӰƬ Marinus Smith Award, which recognizes faculty and staff members who have had a particularly positive impact on students. He received his BA in chemistry and literature from Macaulay Honors College, CUNY, and his PhD in chemical physics from Columbia University.

“I’m honored and thrilled to be part of the Packard Fellows class of 2024!” Montoya-Castillo says. “With the help of the Packard Foundation's funding, I look forward to finding new ways to measure and control nonequilibrium energy flow for human use.”

[video:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W3RtY7QKzxU&t=6s]

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��ƷSM��ӰƬ chemist will use the five-year support to study tailoring cycles affecting energy flow in solar energy conversion.

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ADHD and reading disability often occur together, study finds

Anonymous — Thu, 17 Oct 2024 14:56:38 +0000

ADHD and reading disability often occur together, study finds Anonymous (not verified) Thu, 10/17/2024 - 08:56

Daniel Long

It’s surprisingly common for children to have both conditions, ��ƷSM��ӰƬ researcher Erik Willcutt argues in a recently published paper

According to a paper coauthored by Erik Willcutt, professor of psychology and neuroscience at the ��ƷSM��ӰƬ and faculty fellow of the Institute for Behavioral Genetics, many children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) also have reading disability, and vice versa.

“A lot of kids tend to have both learning and attentional difficulties,” says Willcutt, a clinical child psychologist by training. “Similarly, many children with reading disability also experience broader learning difficulties in areas such as math and writing.”

This research marks a shift in the clinical understanding of learning disabilities.

In recently published research, Erik Willcutt, a ��ƷSM��ӰƬ professor of psychology and neuroscience, finds that many children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder also have reading disability, and vice versa.

“Twenty-five years ago, we all went into an assessment with a child thinking we had to figure out what the diagnosis is.”

“The” diagnosis—singular.

“Back then, it was always kind of surprising if a child met criteria for more than one diagnosis. We’d think, ‘Maybe we’re just wrong, and we’ve got to figure out which diagnosis is correct.’”

Yet, as research has progressed, this either-or thinking has transformed into something more like both-and thinking.

“We’ve realized over time, there are a lot of kids that really do seem to have more than one diagnosis, and that in many cases both diagnoses would benefit from treatment.”

When one diagnosis complicates another

The phenomenon of multiple diagnoses for one person is called comorbidity, a term “that came out of classic medical literature where people could have more than one illness at the same time,” says Willcutt. “For example, heart disease frequently co-occurs with other physical conditions such as diabetes, and this may mean that treatment of the heart disease is complicated by the diabetes or another co-occurring illness.”

It’s the same idea with reading disability and ADHD. “That comorbidity suggests that a child's difficulties extend beyond what they would be if that child had just reading disability.”

Reading disability, Willcutt points out, doesn’t simply mean difficulty reading. It means unexpected difficulty reading, with the expectations being based on a child’s education.

So, a child who struggles to read but hasn’t had an adequate reading education may not have reading disability. Perhaps that student struggles because he or she hasn’t grown up around books, or hasn’t been read to, or hasn’t been given adequate reading instruction. For a student such as this, difficulty reading may not be a disability so much as the natural consequence of a less-enriched reading environment.

It's the children who have had an adequate education and still underachieve in reading who may have reading disability. And if those kids also happen to have ADHD, their reading disability will likely be harder to manage, just as heart disease becomes more challenging for someone who also has diabetes.

“Individuals with more than one disorder often differ in important ways from individuals with a disorder in isolation, with the comorbid group frequently experiencing greater symptom severity, more extensive and severe functional and neurocognitive impairment, and poorer long-term outcomes,” Willcutt and co-author Stephen A. Petrill state in their paper.

Externalizing and internalizing behaviors

Researcher Erik Willcutt notes that reading disability doesn’t simply mean difficulty reading. It means unexpected difficulty reading, with the expectations being based on a child’s education.

There is a range of behaviors associated with reading disability and ADHD, Willcutt explains, some of which are “externalizing” and some of which are “internalizing.”

Externalizing behaviors are those that children express outwardly—“things like aggression, delinquency or conduct problems,” says Willcutt—whereas internalizing behaviors “are more internally focused—so if you feel anxious or you feel depressed or withdrawn.”

Willcutt says that reading disability and ADHD frequently co-occur with both internalizing and externalizing behaviors, but the specific profile varies among children. One student with comorbid ADHD and reading disability may continually show up late to school and disrupt class, whereas another student with the same diagnoses may be quiet and anxious.

“And there are some different behavior clusters that seem to really matter,” Willcutt adds. “The kids who have reading disability and ADHD along with early aggressive or delinquent behaviors tend to be a subgroup that is at higher risk for more severe antisocial behaviors during adolescence. On the other hand, students who have ADHD and reading disability along with internalizing symptoms often show pronounced difficulties in the classroom because they are really anxious about their academic performance.”

Assessment and treatment

Willcutt says that one key takeaway from his and Petrill’s study is that comorbidity matters and is much more common than previously thought. “At least 25% of kids who have ADHD have a learning disability, which is much higher than we would expect by random chance.”

Willcutt therefore hopes those who read his and Petrill’s study, particularly clinicians, adjust their assessment practices in a way that addresses the potential for comorbid diagnoses.

We’re at the point of saying when a child has ADHD and reading disability, both conditions really warrant interventions. Rather than trying to decide which is more important, we should really target both of them by providing the optimal intervention for reading disability and the optimal intervention for ADHD.”

“If you’re assessing learning disabilities, it’s really important to also assess whether a child has attention problems, anxiety or conduct difficulties along with that. For clinicians who specialize in the assessment of ADHD, it's critical to include a screening measure to determine whether the child may also have learning problems. Our results suggest that it may matter quite a bit if they have a comorbid diagnosis.”

For the field more broadly, Willcutt hopes that his and Petrill’s work prompts other researchers to study treatments for comorbid learning disabilities and attentional difficulties.

“We’re at the point of saying when a child has ADHD and reading disability, both conditions really warrant interventions. Rather than trying to decide which is more important, we should really target both of them by providing the optimal intervention for reading disability and the optimal intervention for ADHD.”

In other words, if a child has both reading disability and ADHD, treating only one will likely have little to no effect on the other.

“Reading intervention might really help with the reading, but it may not address some of the other concerns that are also getting in the way for that child.”

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It’s surprisingly common for children to have both conditions, ��ƷSM��ӰƬ researcher Erik Willcutt argues in a recently published paper.

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For some mammals, warming temperatures mean higher elevations

Anonymous — Tue, 15 Oct 2024 17:45:59 +0000

For some mammals, warming temperatures mean higher elevations Anonymous (not verified) Tue, 10/15/2024 - 11:45

In her Distinguished Research Lecture, ��ƷSM��ӰƬ Professor Christy McCain will highlight how certain traits in some mammal and insect populations indicate who is at greatest risk from climate change

Colorado’s small, mountain-dwelling mammals are moving higher—not for better views or real estate, but because climate change is forcing them to.

This finding is based on a 13-year study of 27 rodent and four shrew species in Colorado’s Front Range and San Juan mountains—research that included trapping, tagging and releasing the various mammals to better understand their range.

While the findings are more complex than a simple trend of animals moving up the mountain, they spotlight the sobering possibility that climate change could force some mammals from Colorado entirely.

Christy McCain, a professor in the ��ƷSM��ӰƬ Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and curator of vertebrates in the CU Museum of Natural History, will discuss mountain biodiversity and climate change in her Distinguished Research Lecture Nov. 14.

“We’ve been talking about climate change in the Rockies for a long time, but I think we can say that this is a sign that things are now responding and responding quite drastically," Christy McCain, the study’s lead author, told Denver 7 in Feb. 2021.

McCain, a professor in the ��ƷSM��ӰƬ Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and curator of vertebrates in the CU Museum of Natural History, uses mountains as natural experiments to study biodiversity, ecological theory, global change, montane ecology and range limits.

She will discuss mountain biodiversity and climate change in her Distinguished Research Lecture Nov. 14, highlighting the research her lab has done to understand how animals—mostly vertebrates and insects—are distributed on mountains around the world.

She and her research colleagues have found that different groups of animals, driven by their evolutionary history and climate, show distinctive patterns. For example, mountain biodiversity for rodents, salamanders and moths is quite different from birds, bats and reptiles.

The conservation priorities for each group of mountain organisms are closely tied to elevational diversity patterns, land-use change and complex interactions with a rapidly warming and drying climate. McCain will explore these topics through case studies of mammal populations in the Front Range and San Juan Mountains and carrion beetles—examining how various physiological traits like heat and desiccation tolerance may be critical to responses to climate change.

About Christy McCain

McCain received dual bachelor’s degrees in wildlife biology and studio art from Humboldt State University, was a natural-resources and protected-areas specialist in the Peace Corps Honduras and earned her PhD in ecology and evolutionary biology from the University of Kansas.

She was a postdoctoral fellow at the National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis at the University of California Santa Barbara before coming to ��ƷSM��ӰƬ as an assistant professor in 2008.

If you go

What: 124th Distinguished Research Lecture, Mountain Biodiversity and Climate Change

Who: Professor Christy McCain of the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and CU Museum of Natural History

When: 4-5 p.m. Nov. 14, followed by a Q&A and reception

Where: Chancellor's Hall and Auditorium, Center for Academic Success and Engagement (CASE)

McCain studies how montane organisms are distributed on mountains around the world and how those populations and species are influenced by human land use and climate change. Her research spans topics across ecology and evolution to understand and conserve biodiversity.

Funded by the National Science Foundation through several grants, her research has appeared in more than 60 peer-reviewed journals, including Science, Ecology Letters, Ecology and Global Change Biology, among others.

McCain is the curator of vertebrate collections in the CU Museum of Natural History, where she is a steward for the continued protection and use of museum specimens for understanding and conserving the world’s biodiversity. Over the years, she has taught mammalogy as well as other topics in field biology, creative conservation messaging and mountain ecology and conservation.

About the Distinguished Research Lectureship

The Distinguished Research Lectureship is among the highest honors given by faculty to a faculty colleague at CU Boulder. Each year, the Research and Innovation Office requests nominations from faculty for this award, and a faculty review panel recommends one or more faculty members as recipients.

The lectureship honors tenured faculty members, research professors (associate or full) or adjoint professors who have been with ��ƷSM��ӰƬ for at least five years and are widely recognized for a distinguished body of academic or creative achievement and prominence, as well as contributions to the educational and service missions of CU Boulder. Each recipient typically gives a lecture in the fall or spring following selection and receives a $2,000 honorarium.

McCain and Jamie Nagle, a professor of physics, have been recognized with 2024-25 Distinguished Research Lectureships. Nagle will give his lecture Feb. 6, 2025.

Top image: Eli Allan/Unsplash

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With newest laws, Taliban marks Afghan women as ‘easy targets,’ scholar says

Anonymous — Fri, 27 Sep 2024 19:40:05 +0000

With newest laws, Taliban marks Afghan women as ‘easy targets,’ scholar says Anonymous (not verified) Fri, 09/27/2024 - 13:40

Rachel Sauer

Professor Jennifer Fluri, a feminist political geographer, notes that the growing restrictions on women and girls are echoing strictness not seen since the 1990s

Speaking at U.N. Headquarters in New York City Monday, Oscar-winning actress Meryl Streep observed that household pets and rodents in Afghanistan have more rights than women under draconian new Taliban laws rolled out at the end of August.

“Today in Kabul, a female cat has more freedoms than a woman,” Streep said. “A cat may go sit on her front stoop and feel the sun on her face. She may chase a squirrel into the park. A squirrel has more rights than a girl in Afghanistan today, because the public parks have been closed to women and girls.”

Among other restrictions, the new laws ban women from reciting the Quran in public, raising their voices or looking at men other than their husbands or relatives, and they require all women to cover the lower halves of their faces in addition to covering their heads.

Jennifer Fluri, a professor and chair of the Department of Geography, notes that the newest Taliban restrictions are a huge blow to Afghan women, especially those in urban areas.

For Jennifer Fluri, a ��ƷSM��ӰƬ professor of geography and chair of the Department of Geography, these newest laws—the latest in a steadily growing number of restrictions on women enacted since the Taliban regained power in 2021—are further evidence that for the Taliban, women are easy targets.

Fluri’s doctoral research focused on the Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA), a clandestine feminist-nationalist organization. From that, her research interests evolved to studying the differentiated methods used by Afghans and internationals in Afghanistan to provide for their own security in spaces increasingly beset by political violence and a general state of insecurity.

From 2012 to 2021, she worked on two projects focusing on women's social and political activism, influence and power in Afghanistan: One examined women's roles in the peace process in Afghanistan, and the second focused on women's leadership and influence at different scales, from home and family to national political participation and governance—a project funded by the National Science Foundation.

However, despite her deep experience in the country, she hasn’t been able to travel there since 2019—first because of COVID restrictions and then because of those enacted by the Taliban—and has pivoted her research focus to Afghan refugees and asylum seekers in the United States and Canada, along with the status of women's rights and their social, political and economic participation in Afghanistan.

Fluri recently spoke with Colorado Arts and Sciences Magazine about the newest laws further restricting Afghan girls and women in education, movement and presence in public spaces.

Question: Since 2021, restrictions on women and girls in Afghanistan have gotten steadily stricter. How much worse are these new laws going to make their lives?

Fluri: It’s a huge blow to women, particularly women in urban areas, who had become more used to traveling with just a head scarf, not having to wear a burqa, not having a male escort. As we get further and further from August 2021, the leaders are being more and more emboldened to go back to the ‘90s version of the Taliban. At first it seemed like they were going to be more moderate, a sort of Taliban 2.0—I even thought that was the case, and so did a lot of women’s organizations and feminist activists—but now it’s looking pretty clear they’re going to keep cracking down more and more.

I’m also very critical of what the U.S. has done. I don’t think U.S. officials really took the full time and energy they should have to really do right by Afghan women and girls. It’s such a diverse population—educated urban women have a totally different experience than women in rural areas or women who are more conservative. Some women see Islamic feminism as a path, but even Islamic feminists can’t work with the Taliban. (The Taliban’s) reading of Islam is so narrow, even though the Quran says women and men are equal before God.

Question: These new laws seem really petty, for lack of a better word; why are the Taliban doing this?

Women in Kabul, Afghanistan, wait to receive food rations distributed by an international aid group in April 2023. (Photo: Ebrahim Noroozi/AP)

Fluri: To me, it’s such a silly law. It’s culturally expected that men and women don’t make eye contact—it's a sign of respect—that putting it into law seems unnecessary. It’s just another way of controlling women. I think this is the Taliban wanting all women to follow their very strict interpretations of the Quran and to gather control and power, because this law undercuts family-based or community-based ways of thinking about how people want to express religious beliefs or cultural beliefs, and how to dress or be in public. I hate to say it, but for the Taliban, women are easy targets.

Question: Do you worry that this will further stoke anti-Muslim rhetoric that seems to be getting louder around the world?

Fluri: My biggest frustration with the international aid and development community has been this tendency to blame Islam. Islam isn’t the problem. Women have more rights in Islam than they do in Afghan cultural practice. If the Taliban were following Islam, women would have many more rights, especially around education. Muhammad’s first wife, Khadijah, who he had his only surviving children with, worked outside the home. She was his (Muhammad’s) employer. There are so many examples of women, if you go back to the early days of Islam, who were involved in shaping the faith. Khadijah was the first convert to Islam, and Muhammad’s wife Aisha led men in battle and was the author of many hadiths (words and deeds attributed to the prophet Muhammad written by his closest interlocutors). Women were involved in the early formations of Islam.

Question: Do the Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan and other feminist groups like it still exist, or have they had to flee the country?

Fluri: They’re still in operation, but it’s always been a mostly underground movement—they believe in secularism and women’s rights—and now it’s even deeper underground. They’re doing work similar to work they were doing in the ‘90s: documenting, trying to get more international attention to the plight of women and running secret schools. In Afghanistan, their names have been dragged through the mud 100 times over, so they really do have to be incredibly careful. I would argue that’s why they have started other organizations in other names, because it allows them to continue to do the work without having such intense surveillance and them constantly being in danger of arrest.

Girls attend school in an outdoor classroom in Bamozai, Paktya Province, Afghanistan, in 2007. The Taliban now bans girls 12 and older from attending state-run schools and has banned young women from receiving higher education. (Photo: Capt. John Severns/U.S. Air Force)

I never published on this, because it’s not something they would be happy with, but I would argue RAWA has lot more influence in society than we even know about. Women have been educated in RAWA schools; they’ve started their own NGOs and different activist groups with RAWA support. The feminist philosophies of RAWA have kind of grown legs and created additional organizations. A lot of women who were very high-profile activists in Afghanistan have fled or sought asylum, but some have gone back. They’re working with colleagues or family members to continue to do that work, even though it’s incredibly difficult now.

A man I worked with for years, who worked as a driver for me and research assistant, I’m still trying to help his family and him seek asylum. He’s saying, ‘My daughters have no future here.’ It’s interesting how a number of men are also starting to be like, ‘This isn’t a good place for my daughters.’

Question: Is there anything people in, say, Colorado can do to help Afghan women and girls?

Fluri: Honestly, what I would say is reach out in your community to find out where Afghans who are refugees, who are trying to figure out how to make America work for them, are living. Help them make their way, which is incredibly difficult. It’s such a different culture from the U.S. and people sometimes have an idealistic vision of the U.S. The reality of trying to make ends meet can be so hard for them. So, I would say reach out to your nearest refugee center. I know Lutheran Family Services does a lot of work with refugees, and so does Jewish Family Service and Colorado Refugee Connect. Even just the local housing and human services does a lot of work to help resettle refugees.

Reaching out to volunteer, such as taking people to appointments, little things like that make such a huge difference. A lot of women who came don’t speak English, don’t drive, so their lives are more isolated here than they were in Afghanistan. When you don’t speak the language or know how to ride a bus in a new place, it can be really daunting just to figure out how to make it work for you and your family. The important thing is to look for organizations that are working with Afghans on their own terms and are not trying to tell people what’s best for them. Afghans know what’s best for them.

Top image: Women in traditional burqas walk past Hazrat Ali Mazar Mosque in Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan. (Photo: Wasim Mirzaie)

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Professor Jennifer Fluri, a feminist political geographer, notes that the growing restrictions on women and girls are echoing strictness not seen since the 1990s.

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Amid growing war fatigue, some Ukrainians more willing to cede land

Anonymous — Thu, 19 Sep 2024 15:36:49 +0000

Amid growing war fatigue, some Ukrainians more willing to cede land Anonymous (not verified) Thu, 09/19/2024 - 09:36

Growing number of war-weary Ukrainians would reluctantly give up territory to save lives, suggests recent survey

The Ukrainian president, Volodymyr Zelensky, is trying his best to shake up the dynamics of the Russia-Ukraine war. He recently undertook a major cabinet reshuffle in which he replaced no fewer than nine ministers, including his foreign minister, Dmytro Kuleba. Announcing the changes, Zelensky said he wanted his government to be “more active” in pressing for aid from its western allies.

These cabinet changes came as Ukraine pressed ahead with its offensive in the Kursk oblast in Russia. Zelensky has said that holding some Russian territory will give Kyiv leverage for future territorial exchange negotiations with Russia.

And, while criticism of Zelensky’s gamble has increased as Ukraine’s position in the Donbas in the east of the country has deteriorated, seeing Ukrainian soldiers turn the table on Russia has undeniably given Ukrainians a morale boost.

John O'Loughlin, a ��ƷSM��ӰƬ professor of geography, is a political geographer especially interested in the spatial and territorial aspects of conflict. He and co-researchers Kristin M. Bakke and Gerard recently conducted telephone surveys of 2,200 adults in government-controlled areas of Ukraine.

Ukrainians needed this. As the war has endured and its costs mounted, morale and public health have suffered.

We have tracked Ukrainian sentiment for years. In June and July 2024, in cooperation with the Kyiv International Institute for Sociology (KIIS), we conducted a telephone public opinion survey of 2,200 respondents representative of the adult population of government-controlled areas of Ukraine. This was to follow up on a survey from Oct. 2022.

We should treat wartime polls with caution. But our survey findings suggest people are worried about war weariness among their fellow Ukrainians. It also suggests that there is growing, if reluctant, support for negotiations and territorial concessions.

Open to compromise

Attitudes among Ukrainians toward territorial concessions have also started to shift—but only slightly. Most people have opposed giving up land since 2014, but KIIS’s own regular omnibus survey provides evidence of growing recognition, now shared by one-third of Ukrainians, that territorial concessions may be necessary.

In June-July 2024 we repeated a question we asked in Oct. 2022 on territorial concessions, shown in the figure below. “All choices about what to do during this current Russian aggression have significant, but different, costs. Knowing this, which of the following four choices should the Ukraine government take at this time?”

The biggest change was this: in 2022, 71% of respondents supported the proposition to “continue opposing Russian aggression until all Ukrainian territory, including Crimea, is liberated," but in 2024 the support for that option had dropped to 51%.

In 2022, just 11% agreed with “trying to reach an immediate ceasefire by both sides with conditions and starting intensive negotiations." In 2024, that share had increased to 31%.

But there are differences in how people look at these choices. Much depends on whether they have been displaced (though whether they lost family members or friends does not seem to make a difference), whether they worry about war fatigue among their fellow Ukrainians, and whether they are optimistic or pessimistic about western support.

There is more at stake in this war than territory—not least, saving lives, ensuring Ukraine’s sovereignty, and protecting the country’s future security. KIIS’s own recent research has shown that in a hypothetical negotiation scenario, people’s views on the importance of preserving territorial integrity might depend on how any possible deal might safeguard other things they care about.

For two and a half years, the brutal war has affected everyday lives of Ukrainians, and many (43%) believe that the war will last at least another year. Most of the respondents in our survey had not been physically injured in Russian violence (12% had), but about half had witnessed Russian violence, and most had lost a close family member or friend (62%). About one-third had been displaced from their homes.

Consistent with an increasing number of reports, the survey shows growing recognition of war fatigue. Rather than asking directly about whether respondents felt this themselves, we asked whether they worried about it among fellow Ukrainians. The results were revealing: 58% worry “a lot” and 28% worry “a little," whereas only 10% report that they do not worry about war fatigue.

People in Ukraine mark the second anniversary of the beginning of the war in February. (Photo: Efrem Lukatsky/AP Photo)

While there are signs of war weariness among Ukraine’s western allies, our surveys show that Ukrainians are still broadly optimistic about continued western support, though less so than in October 2022. About 19% believe western support will grow (down from 29% in 2022), while 35% believe it will stay the same (41% in 2022). Almost a quarter (24%) believe it will continue but at a lower level than now (up from 16% in 2022), and 13% believe it is unlikely to continue (up from 3% in 2022).

Life or death

Research from early on in the war showed that Ukrainians strongly preferred strategies that preserved the country’s political autonomy and restored the entirety of its territory. This would hold, “even if making concessions would reduce projected civilian and military deaths, or the risk of a nuclear strike over the next three months."

As the authors of the study pointed out: “Russian control of the government in Kyiv or of territories in the east would put the lives of many Ukrainians at risk, as it is well documented that Russia has committed widespread human rights violations in temporarily occupied territories.”

Given the war’s accumulating death toll, in our 2024 survey we designed a simple framing experiment that can give us an indication of whether considerations about loss of life may shape people’s views on negotiations. We asked half of the respondents, randomly selected, if they would accept that “Ukraine concede some of its territories to end the war”. About 24% said yes.

For the other half, we asked if they would accept that “Ukraine concede some of its territories to save lives and end the war." In that case, 34% said yes. So, if—rightly or wrongly—territorial concessions are associated with saving lives, it increases support for them.

But when asked directly in the 2024 survey if they agreed with the statement “Russia should be allowed to control the territory it has occupied since 2022," 90% disagreed. So, while there is still majority—if diminished—support for fighting to restore full territorial integrity, there is growing support for negotiations.

What we also know from our surveys is that there is very little evidence that Russia’s territorial annexations will ever have any legitimacy among Ukrainians.

John O'Loughlin is a professor in the Department of Geography at the ��ƷSM��ӰƬ. His co-authors are Kristin M Bakke, a professor of political science and international relations at University College London, and Gerard Toal, a professor of government and international affairs at Virginia Tech.

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Growing number of war-weary Ukrainians would reluctantly give up territory to save lives, suggests recent survey.

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Samuel Ramsey receives the prestigious Lowell Thomas Award

Anonymous — Tue, 17 Sep 2024 19:26:37 +0000

Samuel Ramsey receives the prestigious Lowell Thomas Award Anonymous (not verified) Tue, 09/17/2024 - 13:26

Once frightened of insects, Ramsey has become a leader in the field of entomology

Samuel Ramsey, assistant professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at the ��ƷSM��ӰƬ, is one of this year’s recipients of the Lowell Thomas Award.

The Lowell Thomas Award, named after broadcast journalist and explorer Lowell Thomas and given by The Explorers Club, recognizes “excellence in domains or fields of exploration,” according to the award announcement. In particular, the award celebrates “individuals who have grit, tenacity, are undaunted by failure, and endure all obstacles, finding a way forward to discovery and results that expand the limits of knowledge.”

Samuel Ramsey (left) working with the chieftain of a hill tribe village in Thailand to sample domesticated bees for parasites. (Photo: Shin Arunrugstichai/Syzgy Media Co.)

Ramsey, also known as “your friendly neighborhood entomologist,” didn’t always like insects. They used to terrify him. But in the second grade he conquered his fears by learning about insects at his local library.

Now, more than 25 years later, Ramsey is one of the most innovative and distinguished thinkers in the field of entomology. His research has won him numerous awards, including first place in the International Three-Minute Thesis Competition, the American Bee Research Conference’s Award for Distinguished Research and the Acarological Society of America’s Highest Award for Advances in Acarology Research.

Ramsey—a member of the Explorers Club 50, class of 2024—also runs a nonprofit, the Ramsey Research Foundation, which seeks to protect pollinator diversity.

Ramsey’s fellow awardees this year are zoologist Carole Baldwin, ocean conservationist Ellen Pikitch and geothermal scientist Andrés Ruzo. Past recipients include Kathy Sullivan, E. O. Wilson, Kris Tompkins, Isaac Asimov, Sir Edmund Hillary and Carl Sagan.

The 2024 Lowell Thomas Awards Dinner takes place in Austin on Nov. 1.

Top image: Samuel Ramsey researching bee biodiversity in Thailand. (Photo: Shin Arunrugstichai/Syzgy Media Co.)

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Studying complex networks of plants and pollinators

Anonymous — Wed, 11 Sep 2024 18:42:15 +0000

Studying complex networks of plants and pollinators Anonymous (not verified) Wed, 09/11/2024 - 12:42

Julian Resasco

I’ve visited the same Rocky Mountain subalpine meadow weekly for a decade of summers looking at plant-pollinator interactions—here’s what I learned

Imagine a bee crawling into a bright yellow flower.

This simple interaction is something you may have witnessed many times. It is also a crucial sign of the health of our environment—and one I’ve devoted hundreds of hours of field work observing.

Interactions between plants and pollinators help plants reproduce, support pollinator species like bees, butterflies and flies, and benefit both agricultural and natural ecosystems.

Julian Resasco is an assistant professor in the ��ƷSM��ӰƬ Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.

These one-on-one interactions occur within complex networks of plants and pollinators.

In my lab at the ��ƷSM��ӰƬ, we’re interested in how these networks change over time and how they respond to stressors like climate change. My team emphasizes long-term data collection in hopes of revealing trends that would otherwise be unnoticed.

Working at Elk Meadow

Ten years ago, I began working in Elk Meadow, which is located at 9,500 feet (or 2,900 meters) elevation at the University of Colorado’s Mountain Research Station.

I wanted a local field site that allowed for frequent observations to study the dynamics of plant-pollinator networks. This beautiful subalpine meadow, bursting with wildflowers and just 40 minutes from campus, fit the bill perfectly.

Since 2015, often joined by members of my lab, I have made weekly hikes to Elk Meadow. We visit from the first flower in May to the last in October. We observe pollinators visiting flowers at plots scattered throughout the meadow, walking the periphery to minimize trampling. The morning is the best time to visit because pollinator activity is high and thunderstorms often roll in at midday during the summer in the Rocky Mountains.

Observing the network

Elk Meadow is rich in biodiversity. Over the years, we have observed 7,612 interactions among over 1,038 unique pairs of species. These pairings were made by 310 species of pollinators and 45 species of plants.

Pollinators include not only a wide variety of bees, but also flies, butterflies, beetles and the occasional hummingbird. Expert entomologists help us identify some of the insects.

Plants include species that are widespread, like the common dandelion, and some that are only found in the Rocky Mountains, like the Colorado columbine.

Common but vital

Collecting data in Elk Meadow is fun, but it is also serious science. Our data is useful for understanding the dynamics of plant and pollinator interactions within and across seasons.

For example, we learned which interactions between plants and pollinators are stable and which change over time and space. We consistently observed interactions between generalist species and their many partners over time and in different plots across the meadow.

Generalist species can tolerate a range of environmental conditions, meaning they are more frequently available to interact.

In other words, generalist species are more likely to be alive, active and foraging in the case of pollinators—or flowering in the case of plants—compared with species that can only survive if environmental conditions like temperature, sunlight and rainfall are just right to support them.

Generalist species are vital in networks, but they often don’t receive the same conservation attention as rare species. Even these common species can decline due to environmental changes destabilizing entire ecosystems. Protecting these species is important for maintaining biodiversity.

Julian Resasco at Elk Meadows at ��ƷSM��ӰƬ's Mountain Research Station. (Photo: Julian Resasco)

In it for the long term

As we gather more years of data, our study is becoming increasingly useful for understanding how networks and pollinator populations are changing—especially with signs of climate change increasingly emerging. Most ecological studies are only designed or funded for one or a few years, making our 10-year dataset one of only a few for plant-pollinator networks.

It is only with long-term ecological data that we can detect trends in responses to climate change, particularly because of high year-to-year variability in weather and populations.

The National Science Foundation supports a network of long-term ecological research stations across the U.S., including the Niwot Ridge Long-term Ecological Research Program near Elk Meadow, which is dedicated to the study of high-mountain species and ecosystems.

Colorado’s climate, like much of the world, is experiencing significant changes, such as rising temperatures, earlier snow melt and more late-winter and spring rain instead of snow. These changes lead to earlier water runoff from mountains, drier soils and more severe droughts. These shifts can have important consequences for plants and pollinators, including changes in where species are found, how many there are, and when they flower or forage.

High-elevation plant and pollinator communities may be especially vulnerable to climate change impacts since these areas are experiencing greater temperature increases compared with lower elevations.

We have seen warmer and drier conditions at Elk Meadow. Overlaid in this trend, we have observed annual variation in temperature and drought conditions that can help us understand and predict how different species will fare in a hotter and drier future.

Climate change is a driver of pollinator declines and is predicted to become increasingly important in the coming decades. Immediate threats also include pesticide use, light pollution and the destruction of wild habitats for farming and development.

The state of Colorado recently commissioned a study to gauge the health of Colorado’s native pollinators and make recommendations on how to protect them.

Appreciating the current pollinator landscape

Working at Elk Meadow has provided opportunities for my students to conduct independent research and receive valuable training and mentoring.

Seeing the beauty of the living things in the meadow and observing their cycles inspires my students and me.

Elk Meadow is a place to clear my mind and come up with new research ideas. It is also a place to observe and record how one tiny patch of our planet is changing in reaction to bigger changes happening around it.

Julian Resasco is an assistant professor in the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the ��ƷSM��ӰƬ.

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

I’ve visited the same Rocky Mountain subalpine meadow weekly for a decade of summers looking at plant-pollinator interactions—here’s what I learned

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Studying the elephant-sized issues of living with elephants

Anonymous — Mon, 12 Aug 2024 18:35:43 +0000

Studying the elephant-sized issues of living with elephants Anonymous (not verified) Mon, 08/12/2024 - 12:35

Rachel Sauer

On World Elephant Day, PhD student and researcher Tyler Nuckols emphasizes that both groups are important in human-elephant coexistence

Almost every night, Tyler Nuckols can hear fireworks and shouting—not celebrating a holiday or marking an occasion, but trying to drive elephants back into the forest.

In Ruam Thai, Thailand, where Nuckols is conducting socio-ecological fieldwork as he pursues a PhD in the ��ƷSM��ӰƬ Department of Environmental Studies, elephants emerge from the trees of Kui Buri National Park almost every night in search of pineapple.

Over many years, elephants have learned that an easy and accessible meal is in farmers’ fields—to the detriment of those fields and farmers’ livelihoods. As farmers lose their source of income and means of supporting their families, elephants risk injury or worse as farmers—also risking injury or worse—try to deter them.

��ƷSM��ӰƬ PhD student Tyler Nuckols (left, conducting research in Thailand) and Karen Bailey, assistant professor of environmental studies, emphasize that human-elephant coexistence encompass significant issues of sustainability, economic equity, environmental justice and agricultural adaptation.

For a lot of people—mainly those who don’t coexist with elephants—this may not seem like much of a problem. Elephants, after all, are among the world’s most beloved and charismatic animals, credited with an emotional range that some claim matches or even exceeds that of humans. People visit a zoo and return home daydreaming about backyard elephants.

But on World Elephant Day, being celebrated today, Nuckols emphasizes that the challenges and successes of human-elephant coexistence encompass significant issues of sustainability, economic equity, environmental justice and agricultural adaptation that communities and populations worldwide are tackling as climate change fundamentally reshapes how humans coexist with wildlife.

“We’re interested in supporting and partnering with local communities to look at solutions to human-elephant conflict beyond the predominant approaches of ‘Where do you farm? What do you farm? How much money do you make farming?’” Nuckols explains. "Our research and community-based conservation approach looks to explore a more complex focus related to factors like identity, access to resources and historical and political factors, among many more layers that may shape how households can engage in solutions to human-elephant conflict and participate in the first place."

Studying coexistence

Nuckols has been working with elephants for more than 10 years, starting with the Elephant Valley Project in Mondulkiri, Cambodia—an ethical sanctuary and retirement home for elephants that had worked in tourism or logging. After earning a master’s degree at Colorado State University, and after COVID curtailed his plans to return to Cambodia to study mitigation techniques to prevent elephants from entering agricultural fields, he began working with Karen Bailey, a ��ƷSM��ӰƬ assistant professor of environmental studies who leads the WELS (well-being, environment, livelihoods and sustainability) Group.

Bailey completed postdoctoral research in southern Africa with communities living outside protected areas “who were living with the threats of climate change and the impact of sharing the landscape with wildlife,” she says. “Some of the impacts of crop raiding by elephants in southern Africa were significant predictors of potential food insecurity. When that’s combined with the threats of changing seasons and changing climate as well, the realities of human-elephant coexistence in communities in and outside of conservation areas become really pronounced.”

Tyler Nuckols (second from left, blue shirt) and colleagues from Bring the Elephant Home in Thailand. (Photo: Tyler Nuckols)

As part of the Human Elephant Coexistence Through Alternative Agricultural Research (HECTAAR) working group with the human-elephant coexistence research organization Trunks & Leaves, Bailey and Nuckols partner with researchers and conservation groups from around the world to study the reasons for conflict between agriculturalists and elephants, as well as develop and test interventions that support livelihoods and work to rebuild community resilience and landscapes in different countries and cultures.

Nuckols began researching in Thailand in 2022, partnering with NGO Bring the Elephant Home to study human-elephant conflict and how elephants interact with different types of agricultural crops. Nuckols’ research also focuses on environmental justice and resilience, and how communities define ecological justice for both humans and elephants.

The community where Nuckols’ research is based is not only a human-elephant conflict hot spot, but also a success story for conservation and community-based tourism.

“But despite the positive impacts of tourism and some grassroots efforts, conflict occurs every night,” Nuckols says. “You can hear fireworks and shouting and people trying to get elephants back into the forest every night. So, one of the ideas that community members are evaluating is crop transition. Research has shown that elephants won’t eat lemongrass, ginger, chili, citronella, so farmers are interested in growing these crops, but the community is asking how to ensure it’s sustainable and equitable.

“Changing crops is a high-risk decision, when they know they can sell monocrop pineapple that they’ve been growing for decades.”

Risk vs. reward

A significant challenge in human-elephant coexistence is the disconnect between people actually living with or near elephants and the rest of the world that is watching and loves elephants, or at least the idea of elephants.

“Even in Thailand, there’s a huge disconnect between major urban centers like Bangkok and rural provinces,” Nuckols explains. “These farmers are often villainized or portrayed as invaders. They’ve been told they should just pack up and give elephants back their habitat, but that’s not feasible or tenable or just for those people who are being told to leave. It’s very grim, but we’ve had people die in our community from negative encounters with elephants, victims who’ve been attacked in the night while they were guarding their crops.”

Almost every night, farmers in Ruam Thai, Thailand, deal with elephants in their pineapple fields. (Photo: Tyler Nuckols)

Bailey notes that while the world may be watching and feeling invested in the plight of elephants, “there’s an inherent framing of environmental justice that we more equally share the costs and benefits of the environment. We as people globally benefit from elephants existing—we get a warm feeling when we think about them—but we have to remind people that there are costs. We have to think about how to more equitably share the costs and benefits. Anyone who loves elephants and might call themselves an elephant person should know and should be clear that elephant conservation simply will not work if we don’t think about those humans and elevate the human components.”

A complicating factor in some climate change discourse is the argument that humans caused it and animals are blameless in it, so animals should be prioritized in human decision making. “The important nuance is that the rural farmers in Thailand didn’t do this,” Bailey says.

“It’s the wealthy individuals all over the world who are, per capita, emitting many more tons of carbon. There’s an inherent inequity in who is causing the environmental problems, and often the people and communities experiencing the realities of environmental change aren’t key drivers of this change.”

In the community where Nuckols is studying, which is in the rain shadow of a mountain range, drought is a very serious concern. During the last dry season, the reservoir that supplies water to the community nearly dried up. Many farmers in the area grow pineapple for many reasons, one of which is that it’s considered a crop that can survive in high-heat and low-water conditions.

“In the past few years, though, temperatures in the field can soar to 43, 44 (Celsius) and so even now pineapple is struggling to survive,” Nuckols says. “Those conditions are also driving elephants more and more to the edge of the national park, where a lot of the habitat restoration has been funded by large corporate subsidiaries that don’t have time to trek into the forest and dig a water hole.

Elephants at the edge of Kui Buri National Park in Thailand. (Photo: Tyler Nuckols)

“So, you get a concentration of elephants on the edge of the forest, and as climate change gets worse, as resources get more sparse in the forest, elephants are going to go for high energy, high reward crops like pineapple. In a short hour they can devour an entire patch of pineapple that gives them the nutrients and sugar they would spend days foraging for in the dry forest. It’s basic risk versus reward.”

Just listen

In researching the complex factors influencing human-elephant conflict and coexistence, Nuckols emphasizes that a foundational principle of the work is that it’s community-driven and community-led.

“We’re involved in study and data collection, but we do everything in a framework of participatory action research,” Nuckols explains. “We pilot everything we do with focus groups in the local community, we run everything by a group of trusted stakeholders like the village chief and elders working with our organization. We ask them, ‘Is this appropriate?’ and a lot of things were thrown out the window because they’re like, ‘No way.’

“The whole group that’s growing and testing alternative crops now, which is 16 people, are community members who created a collective and are working together. We as researchers act as a bridge to help support the trial, to help find funding. We use our skills to elevate the work that this community is already doing.”

Bailey adds that the lessons learned in researching human-elephant coexistence—though the details can vary broadly between cultures, countries and regions—may inform human-wildlife coexistence in other areas, including Colorado.

“There are tons of parallels and tons of lessons to be learned that we can apply more broadly,” Nuckols says. “One of the biggest is just to listen to community members and help empower those community members. Don’t ever go in assuming you know best. Spend time in the community and pilot your work before you go in and think anything is going to work within a community. Make sure community members feel heard, have a meaningful seat at the table and feel empowered to solve these problems.”

Top image: Asian elephants living in Thailand's Kui Buri National Park (Photo: Tyler Nuckols)

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On World Elephant Day, PhD student and researcher Tyler Nuckols emphasizes that both groups are important in human-elephant coexistence.

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When it comes to rock bands, age does matter

Anonymous — Thu, 25 Jul 2024 18:41:22 +0000

When it comes to rock bands, age does matter Anonymous (not verified) Thu, 07/25/2024 - 12:41

Liam Courtney-Davies

Australia’s largest iron ore deposits are 1 billion years younger than previously thought

Iron ore is the key ingredient in steel production. One of the fundamental resources for the Australian economy, it contributes A$124 billion in national income each year.

This is not surprising, considering Western Australia is home to some of Earth’s largest iron ore deposits, and 96% of Australia’s iron ore comes from this state. Yet despite the metal’s significance, we still don’t know exactly how and when iron deposits formed within the continent.

In new research published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, we answer some of these questions by directly measuring radioactive elements in iron oxide minerals which form the basis of these resources.

Liam Courtney-Davies is a postdoctoral associate in the ��ƷSM��ӰƬ Department of Geological Sciences.

We found that several of Western Australia’s richest iron deposits—such as Mt. Tom Price and Mt. Whaleback—are up to 1 billion years younger than previously understood. This redefines how we think about iron deposits at all scales: from the mining site to supercontinents. It also provides clues on how we might be able to find more iron.

Where does iron ore come from?

Billions of years ago, Earth’s oceans were rich in iron. Then early bacteria started photosynthesising and rapidly introduced huge amounts of oxygen into the atmosphere and oceans. This oxygen combined with iron in the oceans, causing it to settle on the sea floor.

Today, these 2.45-billion-year-old sedimentary rock deposits are called banded iron formations. They represent a unique archive of the interactions between Earth’s continents, oceans and atmosphere through time. And, of course, banded iron formations are what we mine for iron ore.

These sedimentary deposits have distinctive, rhythmic bands of reddish iron and paler silica. They were alternately laid down on the sea floor seasonally. Such remarkable rocks can be visited today in Karijini National Park, WA.

The iron content of these banded iron formations is generally less than 30%. For the rock to become economically viable to mine, it must be naturally converted by later processes to around 60% iron.

The nature of this rock conversion is still debated. In simplest terms, a fluid—such as water—will both remove silica and introduce more iron during an “upgrading” process which transforms the rock’s original makeup.

The geochronology (age dating) of this chemical transformation and upgrading is not well understood, largely because the tools required to directly date the iron minerals have only recently become available.

Previous age estimates for the Pilbara iron deposits were indirect but suggested they were at least 2.2 billion years old.

What did we find out?

You may think of iron ore as rusty, red-coloured dust. However, it’s typically a hard, heavy, steely-blue material. When crushed into a fine powder, iron ore turns red. So the red landscape we see across the Pilbara today is a result of the weathering of iron minerals from beneath our feet.

A banded iron formation at Australia's Fortescue Falls. (Photo: Graeme Churchard/Wikimedia Commons)

We extracted microscopic scale “fresh” iron minerals from drill core samples at several of the most significant Western Australian iron deposits.

Leveraging recent advancements in radiometric dating, we measured naturally occurring radioactive elements in the rocks. In particular, the ratio of uranium to lead isotopes in a sample can reveal how long ago individual mineral grains crystallised.

Using the newly generated iron mineral age data, we constructed the first-ever timeline of the formation of Western Australia’s major iron deposits.

We discovered that all major iron ore deposits in the region formed between 1.4 and 1.1 billion years ago, making them up to 1 billion years younger than previous estimates.

These deposits formed in conjunction with major tectonic events, especially the breakup and reemergence of supercontinents. It shows just how dynamic our planet’s history is, and how complex the processes are that led to the formation of the iron ore we use today.

Now that we know that giant ore deposits are linked to changes in the supercontinent cycle, we can use this knowledge to better predict the places where we are more likely to discover more iron ore.

Liam Courtney-Davies is a postdoctoral associate in the Department of Geological Sciences at the ��ƷSM��ӰƬ.

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Australia’s largest iron ore deposits are 1 billion years younger than previously thought.

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